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A Definition of Closures - クロージャの定義 開始日 2007年02月09日 翻訳完了日 2008年03月16日 最終更新日(ちょこちょこ直したり) 2009年06月03日 (のんびりやっていたら、1年もかかってしまった・・・) はじめに Martin Fowler's Bliki in Japaneseというサイトで、Closureについての和訳が載っています。この中で、 Neal Gafter がクロージャの歴史について素晴らしい投稿をしています。 という記述と共にブログの記事が紹介されていました。Closureとは何なのか、そしてClosureについてまだよく分かっていないので、勉強がてら訳してみようと思いました。 ちなみにこの方、Googleの中の人です。2008/10/3時点の情報ではMicrosoftに転職されたようです。 原著 「A Definition of Closures」 http //gafter.blogspot.com/2007/01/definition-of-closures.html 注意 もともと個人利用を目的として日本語化したために、けっこう意訳している部分があります。「意味分からないよ」とか「おかしいんじゃない?」とかいうのがあれば、オリジナルを参照するか、コメントで質問してください(がんばって調べます)。 また、オリジナルのサイトには30近く(2007/3/12現在)のコメントが付いています。この内容は訳していませんので、全体理解のためにはそちらも見ておくことをお勧めします。 用語 訳文に出てくる各語に対応する原文と、その意味を以下に記します。 訳語 原文 意味 関数を値とする式 function-valued expression 式を評価した値が関数になるもの レキシカルスコープ lexical scope ブロック内で定義された変数はそのブロック内でしかアクセスできないこと。Wikipediaの説明 ダイナミックスコープ dynamic scope レキシカルスコープの定義に加え、あるブロック(サブルーチン)をコールした側のスコープにもアクセスできること。Wikipediaの説明 更新履歴 2007/03/12 作成開始 2008/07/01 shiro氏からコメントを受けて、内容を修正。「higher-order programming ×トップダウン式のプログラム ○高階プログラミング」「function-valued expression ×関数評価による表記法 ○関数を値とする式」とのこと。ありがとうございます。 訳文 Sunday, January 28, 2007 A Definition of Closures クロージャとは何なのか(2007/1/28) There has been some confusion over our proposal to add closures to the Java Programming Language. After all, doesn t Java already have closures in the form of anonymous inner classes? What is the point of adding something to the language that it already has? To some there appears to be a lot in the proposal that has nothing to do with closures, including the control invocation syntax, null as a type, Unreachable, throws type parameters, function interface types, and "nonlocal" returns. In my Javapolis talk I tried to give an explanation for why these features are in the proposal from the practical point of view of what kinds of things would be possible that were not formerly possible. But that begs the question why do we call it "Closures" for Java? In this blog post I ll try to show how the definition of closures relates to the features of the proposal, and identify which features of the proposal do (and which do not) result from the definition. 私たちの、Javaプログラミング言語にクロージャを追加するという提案に対して、いくらかの混乱がありました。結局のところ、Javaはすでに匿名クラスによってクロージャをサポートしているのでは?言語でサポートされている何かをさらに追加することの重要性は何なの?いくつかはクロージャとは無関係な提案も多くありました。control invocation syntax、型としてのNull、非到達性、型パラメータのthrow、関数インタフェースのタイプ、そして非局所的リターン。Javapolisのセッションでは、私はなぜこれらの機能が提案に含まれているかを、どんなことが以前は不可能で、そして可能になるのかという現実的な視点から説明しました。 けれど疑問は残ります。なぜこれを、Javaにとっての『クロージャ』と呼ぶのでしょうか? この記事では、私は提案された機能がクロージャの定義とどのように関連しているかを紹介し、そして提案の中のどの機能がクロージャの定義に起因している(していない)かを明確にしようと思います。 Before discussing the definition of closures, it helps to understand the historical context in which the term was introduced. さて、クロージャについて議論する前に、この用語が導入された歴史的な背景を説明しましょう。 Lisp was created in the late 1950 s by John McCarthy and others at M.I.T. One feature of the language was function-valued expressions, signified by lambda. The name "lambda" was borrowed from a mathematical formalism known as the lambda calculus. Although Lisp was not based on an effort to model that formalism, lambda plays approximately the same role in Lisp as it does in the lambda calculus lambda is the syntax for a function-valued expression. McCarthy s intent was that Lisp should be designed to be implemented very efficiently, ideally compiled. That desire for efficiency influenced the design of the language. Lispは1950年代後半にM.I.TのJohn McCarthyらによって作られました。この言語の特徴の1つに関数を値とする式《function-valued expression》があり、lambdaで表現されています。「lambda」という名前はλ算法で知られる数学理論から借りたものです。形式主義をモデル化しようとする行いと同じ立場には立たなかったものの、Lispでもlambdaは「関数を値とする式のためのシンタックス」であるλ算法と同じ役割を果たしています。McCarthyは、Lispがとても効率良く実装できて、理想的な形でコンパイルできるようデザインされるべきだと考えていました。効率性への欲求はLispの言語設計にも影響しました。 Lisp used something called dynamic scoping. Logically, in a dynamically scoped language, when a variable reference is evaluated the runtime looks up the call stack until it finds a scope in which a variable of that name is defined. But as a practical matter variable references in a dynamically scoped language can be resolved in constant time simply by maintaining a value cell for each variable name; that value cell caches the variable s current definition. Dynamic scoping is easy to implement in an interpreter or compiler. Some very clever people had found ways to not only take advantage of dynamic scoping, but had developed what would now be thought of as programming patterns that depended deeply on it. But it was soon discovered that dynamic scoping suffered subtle problems, something the Lisp community called the FUNARG problem. Lispではダイナミックスコープ《dynamic scope》と呼ばれるものを使っています。理屈の上では、動的スコープを用いる言語は変数の参照元が評価されるとき、ランタイムが変数名の定義されているスコープを見つけるまでコールスタックを探索します。しかし現実的な問題として、ダイナミックスコープを持つ言語ではシンプルに各変数名に対する「値のセル(value cell)」を管理することで、変数の参照先解決を一定時間で行っています。値のセルに変数の現在の定義をキャッシングしているのです。ダイナミックスコープはインタプリタやコンパイラにとって簡単な実装になります。何人かの聡明な方々は、ダイナミックスコープを活用する方法を見つけただけでなく、プログラミングパターンという、ダイナミックスコープに深く依存する思考方法を発展させました。しかしダイナミックスコープではFUNARG問題(訳注:日本語訳がここにあります)と呼ばれる繊細な問題を抱えていることもすぐに分かりました。 Now we fast-forward to the mid 1970 s. On the radio you would hear(*1) Elton John, Emerson Lake Palmer, Joni Mitchell, The Captain and Tennille, John Denver, Paul Simon, Paul McCartney and Wings, ABBA, David Bowie, Janis Ian, Aerosmith, Fleetwood Mac, Heart, and Queen. A number of popular Lisp dialects were in use including InterLisp, MacLisp, UCI-Lisp, Stanford Lisp 1.6, and U. Utah s Standard Lisp. All of them were dynamically scoped. It was in this context that Guy Steele and Gerald Jay Sussman developed Scheme, a very simple Lisp dialect. では、時代を1970年代中頃まで早送りしましょう。ラジオからはElton John, Emerson Lake Palmer, Joni Mitchell, The Captain and Tennille, John Denver, Paul Simon, Paul McCartney and Wings, ABBA, David Bowie, Janis Ian, Aerosmith, Fleetwood Mac, Heart, そして Queenが聞こえてくることでしょう。(これは私ではなくGuy Steeleの、1970年後期の音楽に対する個人的インプレッションですからね) 当時の有名なLisp方言として、InterLisp, MacLisp, UCI-Lisp, Stanford Lisp 1.6, U. Utah s Standard Lispがありました。これらは全てダイナミックスコープを用いていました。SchemeというごくシンプルなLisp方言も、この時期にGuy SteeleとGerald Jay Sussmanによって作られました。 One thing about Scheme was different.(*2) Scheme was lexically scoped, like the lambda calculus and most mathematical notations, which means that a variable reference binds to the lexically enclosing definition for that name that was active at the time the enclosing lambda form was evaluated. To explain the semantics in terms of the implementation, evaluating a lambda expression was said to produce a "closure". This is a function value represented as an object that contains references to the current bindings for all the variables used inside the lambda expression but defined outside it. These are called the free variables. When this closure object, or function, is applied to arguments later, the variable bindings that had been captured in the closure are used to give meaning to the free variables appearing in the code. The term closure describes more than just the abstract language construct, it also describes its implementation. Schemeは他と異なっていました(Schemeは最初のレキシカルスコープを持つLispでしたが、レキシカルスコープを用いた初めてのプログラミング言語ではありません。たとえばAlgol60などがそうでした。詳しくはLandinのThe Next 700 Programming Languagesを参照してください)。Schemeではレキシカルスコープを用いていて、λ算法や最も数学的な記述方法のようでした。内部で持つλ構文が評価されるときにアクティブになる名前の、構文的な包含定義を変数の参照は束縛していたのです。実装に関するこのセマンティクスを説明するために、「lambda式を評価すること」は「『クロージャ』を生成すること」と言われていました。これは関数の値であり、lambda式内で使われている(ただし式外で定義された)全変数の束縛への参照を含んだオブジェクトとして表現されます。この変数は自由変数と呼ばれています。このクロージャオブジェクト、または関数があとで引数に適用されるとき、クロージャ内に捕捉されている変数の束縛はコード内に現れる自由変数に意味を与えるために用いられます。クロージャという言葉には、単なる抽象化のための言語構造のみならず、実装の意味も含まれているのです。 To many in the Lisp community at the time, it didn t make sense to adopt a Lisp dialect with closures. Not only would it undermine common programming techniques but it would obviously be much less efficient. For a short time these issues were debated, and Guy Steele wrote a series of papers entitled Lambda the Ultimate _____ (where _____ is Imperative, Declarative, GOTO, or Opcode) to help explain the power of lexically scoped lambda (closures). Fast forward only a few years and the debate was largely settled lexical scoping is Right and dynamic scoping is Wrong and we ve all learned our lesson. Since that time the word closure is used to mean lexically scoped anonymous function, but the connotation is that it is possible to get the semantics wrong for any number of reasons, including bugs and concerns about implementation efficiency. It also hints that we should let the language design drive the implementation, not the other way around. Virtually every programming language, whether or not it has something like lambda and anonymous function values, uses lexical rather than dynamic scoping. The basic definition of a closure, however, shows its Lisp roots 当時、多くのLispコミュニティにとって、Lisp方言にクロージャを採用することに意味はありませんでした。一般的なプログラミングテクニックを損なうだけでなく、明らかに非効率的だったのです。しばしこの問題について議論され、そしてGuy Steeleはレキシカルスコープなlambda(=クロージャ)が持つ力について説明した一連の論文:Lambda the Ultimate _____ (_____には「Imperative」/「Declarative」/「GOTO」/「Opcode」が入ります)を作成しました。数年後、議論はほぼ収束しました。レキシカルスコープは正しく、ダイナミックスコープは間違っていたのです。これはとても良い教訓になりました。そのときからクロージャは「レキシカルスコープである匿名関数」を意味する単語として使われるようになったのですが、この表現は幾つかの理由やバグ、実装効率によって解釈の違いが発生する可能性を常に持っていました。言語設計に実装を推進させるべきであり、それ以外の方法は採るべきではない、というヒントを与えてもいました。抽象的に見て、全プログラミング言語はlambdaや匿名関数などをサポートしている・していないに関わらず、ダイナミックスコープよりもむしろレキシカルスコープを採用しています。 Lispを起源とする、クロージャの基本的な定義は以下のとおりです。: A closure is a function that captures the bindings of free variables in its lexical context. クロージャとは、そのレキシカルコンテキストの中に自由変数の束縛を保持する関数である。 Around this time, Smalltalk was introduced. Smalltalk is the most pure and simple of the object-oriented languages everything is an object. Object-oriented languages add a twist to lexical scoping. Rather than binding all names in the lexical scope, free variables appearing in methods are bound in the scope of the object that the method is a member of. In other words, names in a method are bound to members of the "current" object. The current object is accessible by the name "self". Another small but interesting detail is that you can return early from a method in Smalltalk using the syntax "^expression". We ll return (no pun intended) to the significance of this fact later. さて、ここからはSmalltalkを紹介しましょう。Smalltalkは「すべてがオブジェクト」という、もっとも純粋・シンプルなオブジェクト指向言語です。オブジェクト指向言語はレキシカルスコープにひねり(twist)を加えました。レキシカルスコープ内の全ての名前をバインドするよりもむしろ、メソッド内の自由変数は、そのメソッドをメンバに持つオブジェクトのスコープに束縛されているのです。言い換えると、メソッド内の名前は「現在の」オブジェクトのメンバに対して束縛されています。現在のオブジェクトは"self"という名前によってアクセスできます。もう1つの小さな、けれど興味深いポイントは、"^expression"という文法を使うことで、メソッドから早々に返る(戻る)ことが出来ると言う点です。 後ほど、この事実の重要性に戻ってきますからね(いや、ジョークじゃないですよ)。 Methods aren t the only kind of code abstraction in Smalltalk. There is also an expression form for writing a block expression, which is essentially a lambda. Early dialects had limitations on them, but most modern Smalltalks do not. They are a true analog to Scheme s lambda. Free variables in a Smalltalk block are bound in the enclosing scope, which is typically the scope of some enclosing method. The result of evaluating a block expression is a closure, and like everything else it is an object. In this case the object has a method that you use to invoke the code of the block. Smalltalkにおいて、メソッドとはコード抽象化程度のものではありません。まさしくlambdaのようにブロック構文を使った表現方法もあります。初期のSmalltallk方言には制限がありましたが、現在ほとんどのSmalltallkにおいてはそんなことはありません。 これらはSchemeでのlambdaと本当によく似ています。Smalltalkのブロック構文にある自由変数は(ブロックに)囲まれたスコープ──エンクロージャメソッドの典型的なスコープ──にバインドされていています。ブロック構文を評価した結果はクロージャであり、それ以外はオブジェクトのようでもあります。このケースでは、オブジェクトはブロック表記コードを実行するために使うメソッドを持っている、と言えます。 Anonymous functions (closures) were not blindly introduced into Smalltalk just because it seemed like a neat idea, or because they had worked out well in another language. Rather they were integrated fully and carefully into the language. Anonymous functions can properly be integrated into even an existing language, but there is an advantage when adding them early. As Guy Steele s papers demonstrated, they are so powerful that they subsume other language features. If you add them early, you might save yourself the trouble of adding language features that can instead be added as libraries. Smalltalk provides few control constructs directly in the language. Even the conditional "if" is provided as a library method and invoked using blocks. 匿名関数《Anonymous functions》(≒クロージャ)はSmalltalkに盲目的に取り入れられたわけではなく、上品なアイデアのようだったか、または開発者が他の言語に精通していたために取り入れられました。十分に注意深く、匿名関数は言語に組み入れられたのです。 匿名関数は既に存在している言語にでさえ正確に追加することができますが、ただし早期に導入するアドバンテージは存在します。Guy Steeleは論文で、匿名関数は取り入れる言語そのものを包含してしまうくらいパワフルなものだ、と記しています。つまり早期導入しておけば、ライブラリとして後から言語に導入することによるトラブルから身を護ることが出来るかもしれないのです。Smalltalkの言語仕様では制御構文をほとんど直接は提供していません。「if」条件文でさえライブラリのメソッドとして提供され、ブロック構文を用いて呼び出されるのです。 Two things distinguish blocks in Smalltalk from Scheme s lambda. First, the meaning of "self" within a block refers to whatever meaning it had in the enclosing context. Specifically, it doesn t refer to the closure object itself. Second, the syntax for returning from a method, "^expression", returns from the enclosing method; it doesn t return from the method representing the closure invocation. These two details are a natural consequence of the fact that, while Scheme has only one lexically scoped language construct (variable bindings), Smalltalk has three lexically scoped language constructs name bindings (like Scheme), the referent of the return syntax, and the meaning of "self". The definition of closures above mentioned only "the bindings of free variables", but that is because the definition was written for the language Scheme, and name (variable) binding is the only lexically scoped construct in Scheme. Common Lisp also has "return" and "goto", and these too are captured lexically in a closure. In order to realize the full power of closures, described in Guy Steele s lambda papers, they must capture all lexically scoped language constructs. Generalizing the definition of closure to cover other languages would require using more language-neutral terminology instead of "bindings of free variables" we would have something like "lexically scoped semantic language constructs." However, that obscures the origins of the term. Smalltalkのブロック構文は、Schemeのラムダ構文と比べて2つの事柄により区別できます。1つ目は、ブロック内の「self」の意味が、包含するコンテキストが持つすべての意味も参照していることです。もっと正確に言えば、それ(self)がクロージャオブジェクト自身を指しているのではないことに注意が必要です。2つ目は、メソッドから返るための構文「^expression」が、包含しているメソッドから返ってくることです。クロージャの実行で表現されるメソッドから返っているのではありません。これら2つのポイントから、Schemeがレキシカルスコープ:変数束縛だけを持つ言語として構成されたこと、Smalltalkが3つのレキシカルスコープ:名前束縛(≒Scheme)、リターン時のシンタックスの参照、"self"の意味を持つ言語として構成されたことが自然に導き出されます。ここまでで述べたクロージャの定義は「自由変数の束縛」という意味でしたが、それはつまり、これがScheme言語のために定義された単語であるからです。Schemeでは、名前(変数)束縛が唯一の構成物ですから。Common Lispではさらに"return"や"goto"も持っていて、これらもまたクロージャ内でレキシカルに構成されています。Guy Steelのlambdaの論文をに書かれたクロージャの力をフルに引き出すためには、それらはすべてレキシカルスコープとして言語に組み込まれなければいけないのです。 他の言語をカバーすることを目的とした、クロージャの定義の一般化には、言語に沿った専門用語を用いることが必要です。「レキシカルスコープ化されたセマンティックな言語構成」のように用いる「自由変数の束縛」の代わりに、です。ところが、それが用語の元々(origin)を不明瞭にしてしまっているのです。 Fast forward more than 25 years, and we re once again listening to some of the same music we listened to in the late 1970 s. We are now considering adding closures to Java, a significantly more complex language than either Scheme or Smalltalk. We re not considering them because they seem like a neat idea, or because they worked out well in other languages, or because we re bored. Rather we re considering them because of the power and flexibility they will add to the programmer s arsenal; because of the improved readability we expect from programs that use closures instead of the existing alternatives; and because of a number of other recently proposed language extensions that will be unnecessary if closures are added. In order to get the full power of closures, they should capture all lexically scoped semantic language constructs. What are the lexically scoped language constructs in Java? それから25年以上経った現在、私たちは1970年代のときと同じ音楽を聴いています。そして、私たちはJavaという、SchemeやSmalltalkとは比べ物にならない複雑な言語にクロージャを導入しようとしているのです。私たちがクロージャを検討している理由は、それが上品かつ巧妙なアイデアだからではなく、それらが多言語で枯れてきたからでもなく、退屈だからでもありません。そうではなくて、そのパワーとフレキシビリティがプログラマーにとっての引き出し《arsenal》を増やすこと、既存の他の方法の変わりにクロージャを使うことがプログラムの可読性を向上させること、そしてクロージャによって不要で大量な機能の追加が不要になるからです。 クロージャの本当の力を引き出すには、言語構造で必要なレキシカルスコープのすべての構文を捕捉するべきです。 では、Javaの言語構造のうち何がレキシカルスコープなのでしょうか? The meaning of variable names. The meaning of method names. The meaning of type names. The meaning of this. The meaning of names defined as statement labels. The referent of an unlabelled break statement. The referent of an unlabelled continue statement. The set of checked exceptions declared or caught. The referent of a return statement. The definite assignment state of variables. The definite unassignment state of variables. The reachability state of the code(*3). 変数名の意味 メソッド名の意味 型名の意味 thisの意味 statementラベルとして定義された名前の意味 ラベルのないbreak文の指す先 ラベルのないcontinue文の指す先 The set of checked exceptions declared or caught. return文の指す先 変数の明確なアサイン文(? assignment state) 変数の明確なアンアサイン文(? unassignment state) コードの到達性を示す構文(*4). In addition, Java has one other significant difference from either Scheme or Smalltalk Java is statically typed. That means that each expression has a type at compile-time. So if we add closures, we need to have some appropriate type for a closure. Since a closure is an anonymous function, it is natural to consider adding function types to the language. But this is not a mandate. As you can see by the two variations of our closures proposal (the nominal and the functional versions) we believe it is possible to add closures without adding function types with a limited loss of functionality (higher-order programming becomes impractical). Our proposal for closures addresses every item on this checklist. There are additional features of our proposal (the control invocation syntax and the closure conversion) that don t relate directly to the definition of closures, but which make them integrate very nicely with existing language features. And there are additional features not mentioned in the spec (such as proper tail recursion) that would be helpful to realize the full potential of closures. それに加えて、JavaはSchemeやSmalltalkと大きく異なる特徴があります。:Javaは静的型チェックを行う言語です。つまり、コンパイル時点で式は型を持つのです。そのためクロージャを追加するならば、クロージャのために適した型を用意しなければなりません。クロージャは匿名関数であるため、言語に関数型を追加することを検討した方が自然です。しかしそれは絶対ではありません。私たちの2種類のクロージャへの提案(the nominal and the functional versions)から分かるように、私たちは、機能のロスをわずかながら伴う関数型の追加でなくても、クロージャを実装することが可能であると思っています(高階プログラミングは現実的ではありません)。クロージャへの提案はこのチェックリストにあるアイテムを指し示しています。クロージャの定義とは直接関係しない機能追加への提案(control invocation syntaxとクロージャのコンバージョン)もいくつかあります。しかし、すでにあるJava言語と、とてもうまく統一できています。 What about anonymous inner classes? It turns out that they don t pass muster on any item on this checklist. Let s set aside the fact that local variables from enclosing scopes must be final to be used inside an anonymous class. The problem is that variable names are simply not resolved in the correct scope. They are resolved in the scope of the anonymous class that you re creating, not the enclosing scope. If you re creating an instance of an interface then it s probably not too much of a problem because most interfaces don t have any (constant) variable definitions. But anonymous inner classes fail every other item on this checklist as well, most of them fatally. Most alternative proposals don t actually address any of the items on this list, and so fail to provide the power of closures any more than existing language constructs. 匿名インナークラス(anonymous inner classes)についてはどうでしょうか?このチェックリストには乗っていません。匿名クラスの中で用いられる、外側の変数はfinalでないといけないという事実は脇に置いておきましょう。問題は、変数名が正しいスコープの中では単純に解決できないことにあります。それら変数は作成した匿名関数のスコープ内で解決されます。外側のスコープではないのです。仮にinterfaceのインスタンスを作成したならば、interfaceは変数や定数の定義を持たないため、解決の困難さはそれ程問題にはならないでしょう。 しかし匿名インナークラスではチェックリスト内の他の致命的なアイテムと同様にうまくいかないのです。ほとんどの代替案はこのリストのアイテムのどれにも当てはまりません。それゆえ、既存の言語構造よりも強力なクロージャを提供することに失敗してしまうのです。 Setting aside all the programming language theory, don t anonymous inner classes provide, in practice, all of the advantages of closures? I believe I've already shown that the answer is no. It is certainly true that for any program you can write using closures, you can write a roughly equivalent program using anonymous inner classes. That s because the Java programming language is Turing-complete. But you will probably find yourself resorting to a significant and awkward refactoring of the code that has nothing to do with the purpose of the code. In fact, you can write a roughly equivalent program using assembly language if you have the stomach for such an effort. On the other hand, true closures increase the power of a language by adding to the kinds of abstractions you can express. プログラミング言語のセオリーをすべて無視して、実際問題として匿名インナークラスはクロージャの利便性をすべて提供しているのでしょうか? 私は、その答はNoであるとすでに伝えています。クロージャを使って書ける幾多のプログラムにとっては真実であり、確かにほぼ同等のプログラムが匿名インナークラスによって書けてしまいます。これはJavaプログラミング言語がチューリング完全であるからです。けれどもあなたはしばしば、コードの目的とは関係ない大量で厄介な箇所のリファクタリングを行っていることに自分自身で気がつくでしょう。 実際のところ、その根性さえあればアセンブリ言語を使ってほぼ同等のプログラムを書けてしまいます。その一方で、真のクロージャは言語の持つ力を増大させるのです。表現可能な抽象化の一種を追加することによって。 ( - ) lethevert氏のブログのコメント経由で拝見しました。訳に少し気になるところがあったのでコメントしておきます。 "function-valued expression" は「関数を値とする式」です。式を評価した値が関数になるものですね。 "higher-order programming" は「高階プログラミング」という用語です。関数を引数として別の関数に渡したり、関数から戻り値として関数を返したりすることを指します。 -- shiro(コメントいただいた内容をかときちが本欄に転載しました。ありがとうございました) (2008-07-01 22 10 18)
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【登録タグ D NANA HOLIC III Nana Takahashi SOUND HOLIC 曲 砕月】 【注意】 現在、このページはJavaScriptの利用が一時制限されています。この表示状態ではトラック情報が正しく表示されません。 この問題は、以下のいずれかが原因となっています。 ページがAMP表示となっている ウィキ内検索からページを表示している これを解決するには、こちらをクリックし、ページを通常表示にしてください。 /** General styling **/ @font-face { font-family Noto Sans JP ; font-display swap; font-style normal; font-weight 350; src url(https //img.atwikiimg.com/www31.atwiki.jp/touhoukashi/attach/2972/10/NotoSansCJKjp-DemiLight.woff2) format( woff2 ), url(https //img.atwikiimg.com/www31.atwiki.jp/touhoukashi/attach/2972/9/NotoSansCJKjp-DemiLight.woff) format( woff ), url(https //img.atwikiimg.com/www31.atwiki.jp/touhoukashi/attach/2972/8/NotoSansCJKjp-DemiLight.ttf) format( truetype ); } @font-face { font-family Noto Sans JP ; font-display swap; font-style normal; font-weight bold; src url(https //img.atwikiimg.com/www31.atwiki.jp/touhoukashi/attach/2972/13/NotoSansCJKjp-Medium.woff2) format( woff2 ), url(https //img.atwikiimg.com/www31.atwiki.jp/touhoukashi/attach/2972/12/NotoSansCJKjp-Medium.woff) format( woff ), url(https //img.atwikiimg.com/www31.atwiki.jp/touhoukashi/attach/2972/11/NotoSansCJKjp-Medium.ttf) format( truetype ); 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} .not_in_card { border-bottom dashed 1px #D0D0D0; } .tooltip { display flex; visibility hidden; position absolute; top -42.5px; left 0; width 275px; min-height 20px; max-height 100px; padding 10px; border-radius 5px; background-color #555; align-items center; color #FFF; font-size 85%; line-height 20px; text-align center; white-space nowrap; opacity 0; transition 0.7s; -webkit-user-select none; -moz-user-select none; -ms-user-select none; user-select none; } .inaudible .tooltip { top -68.5px; } span hover + .tooltip { visibility visible; top -47.5px; opacity 0.8; transition 0.3s; } .inaudible span hover + .tooltip { top -73.5px; } .not_in_card span.hide { top -42.5px; opacity 0; transition 0.7s; } .inaudible .img { display inline-block; width 3.45em; height 1.25em; margin-right 4px; margin-bottom -3.5px; margin-left 4px; background-image url(https //img.atwikiimg.com/www31.atwiki.jp/touhoukashi/attach/2971/7/Inaudible.png); background-size contain; background-repeat no-repeat; } .not_in_card after, .inaudible .img after { content ; 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The Inter-state exposition souvenir; containing a historical sketch of Chicago; also a record of the great Inter-state exposition of 1873, from its inception to its close; names of exhibitors, and description of articles exhibitedhttp //www.archive.org/details/interstateexposi00vana GREAT INTER-STATE EXPOSITION OF 1873 ? http //www.archive.org/stream/interstateexposi00vana/interstateexposi00vana_djvu.txt EXPOSITION SOUVENIR. SECTION 8. Apparatus and Instruments for Instruction and Scientific Investigation, Optical Instruments, etc. 5. E. PAYSON PORTER, 159 LaSalle street, Chicago. Sholes Gledden s Type Writer.This is a truly novel little machine, by the use of which the operator is enabled to produce copy in the form of print with twice the rapidity of the penman, and with the most perfect ease, It is adapted for merchants, lawyers, editors, authors, etc. It requires no especial skill in its manipulation, and one may readily become able to write from sixty to eighty words per minute. The motion of the hand is free, easy, and unconstrained, so that the monotonous move- ment of the pen is avoided and the labor of writing performed with far less fatigue to the muscles of the hand and arm. This machine is in constant use at the National Telegraph College, of which the exhibitor is proprietor, and who is also agent for the sale of this valuable machine. The operation of this machine is simple. A set of keys similar to those of a piano, upon each of which is a letter of the alphabet. The operator presses upon a key, and by the mechan- ical construction of this machine a letter is printed upon the paper corresponding with the key touched. This little invention is destined to lessen the arduous labors of the copyist, and is hailed with favor by the telegraph operators and press of the country. OCN|翻訳サービス http //www.ocn.ne.jp/translation/ E. PAYSON PORTER、159ラサル通り、シカゴ。 ショールズ GleddenのタイプWriter.Thisは、印刷という形でオペレータが筆記者の2倍の速さ、および最も最適の容易によってコピーを生産することが可能にされる使用で本当に斬新な小さいマシンであり それ 、マーチャント、弁護士、エディタ、作者などのために適応します それはそのマニピュレーションについての格別な手腕を全然必要とせず、それは、すぐに、60語/分から80語/分まで書くことが可能になるかもしれません。 手の動作は自由で、容易で、無連結式です。ペンの単調な動き-mentは避けられて、書き込みの労働者はずっと少ない疲労によって手とアームの筋肉に働き、従って、。 このマシンは全国電信大学で一定に使用されています。それで、展示者は、所有者、およびこの貴重なマシンの販売のためのエージェントでもあることです。 このマシンの操作は簡単です。 アルファベットの手紙であるそれぞれでピアノのそれらと同様なキーのセット。 オペレータがキー、およびmechan-を押し付ける 紙のように薄い一致と同時に手紙がキーでプリントされるこのマシンのical建築は触れました。 このほとんどの発明が写字生の困難な仕事を減らすことは運命づけられず、好意によって国の電信オペレータとプレスにより歓迎されます。 http //www.archive.org/stream/interstateexposi00vana#page/98/mode/2up link_trackbackcounter -
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RSIT Server (SSH Product) known issue could cause SSH connection failure. One of the SSH server in our test environment stopped accepting incoming public key authentication with error message "Permission denied (public key)". This error had continued until we fixed the problem. After analysis, we found there is known issue causing the same problem, related to the particular version of RSIT (Reflection for Secure IT) Server. This issue could occur on any Windows platform using a RSIT 6.1(fixed in Release 7). Potential impact area is SSH connection between Amsterdam sites and BTMU WebFile Server which runs on Windows 2003 Server and RSIT 6.1 SP5. Although at this time, this issue has never happened in the production server and RSIT support team says that the frequency of occurrence is very low, if this event occurred, SSH connection from Amsterdam sites would be refused until we fix the problem. In order to prevent this issue will occur in the production server, we want to take a workaround, which is modifying SSH configuration file on our server. We are planning to test this workaround in the test environment in the first week of January, 2012. In order to verify this fix works correctly, we want you to make a SSH connection test from your sites in the second week of January. Our concern is that your site still has a test environment which can connect to our test server. If you have an available environment, please let us know. The following is the detailed description about RSIT known issue. [Cause] Normally, when RSIT server receives SSH connection request from a client, it goes through Windows logon process which reads file called “USERPROFILE”. The USERPROFILE contains pass to the client public key which is used for the authentication. For some reason, when Windows logon process failed to load USERPROFILE, it uses Temporal USERPROFILE instead. Temporal USERPROFILE has different path to the public key. Consequently, RSIT server cannot find registered public key and denies the public key authentication. To make matters worse, RSIT Server writes the wrong path to Windows registry. (RSIT support team says that the behavior is by design.) As a result, RSIT Server continues to use the wrong path and refuse public key authentication. ※At this time, the root cause of failing to load USERPROFILE is unknown. However, RSIT support team says the frequency of occurrence is very low.
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Minimum Bisection is Fixed Parameter Tractable Marek Cygan, Daniel Lokshtanov, Marcin Pilipczuk, Michał Pilipczuk, Saket Saurabh STOC 2014 minimum bisection グラフを半分にするためには何本の辺を除けばいいか k本取り除いて頂点集合AとBに分割される ||A|-|B||≦1 これがFPT!! O(2^O(k^3)*n^3*log^3 n) k 解の大きさ おおまかな流れ 専用の木分解→DP!! 分割 A∪B = V E(A\B, B\A) = φ 木幅は制限しない 2つバッグの共通部分の大きさは2^O(k) DP 状態数は2^O(k)n^2だけど 更新が木幅に関して指数になりそう Hypergraph Paintingという問題(手法?) STOC minimum bisection 2014-10-03 17 46 26 (Fri)
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Exploring Expect A Tcl-based Toolkit for Automating Interactive Programs (Nutshell Handbooks) も く じ 前書き?Expect---何で新たなツールを作ったの? Tcl---少し歴史でも 謝辞 みなさんからのご意見、感想お待ちしています この書籍の読み方について記述法について 練習問題について 序論---Expectとは何ぞや? いてっ、今まで通りのプログラムでは苦痛! Tcl---序論と概要? あらゆるものが文字列 引用符の約束事 表現の形式 大括弧({})---評価のしかたあれこれ 構造を制御する もっと進んだ表現形式 リスト 文字列をよりよく操作する 配列 間接参照 エラーを処理するには コマンドとしてのリストの評価の仕方 参照渡し ファイルの動作 ファイルI/O UNIXコマンドの実行方法 環境変数 不明なコマンドを処理するには 演習 Getting Started With Expect The send Command The expect Command Anchoring What Happens When Input Does Not Match Patern-Action Paris Example---Timed Reads In The Shell The spawn Command The interact Command Example---Anonymous ftp Exercises Glob Patterns And Other Basics The * Widlcard More Glob Patterns Backslashes Handling Timeout Handling End Of File (eof) Hints On The spawn Command Back To Eof The close Command Programs That Ignore Eof The wait Command Exercises Regular Expressions Regular Expressions---A Quick Start Identifying Regular Expressions And Glob Patterns Using Parentheses To Override Precedence Using Parentheses For Feedback More On The timed-read Script Pattern Matching Strategy Nested Parentheses Always Count Parentheses, Even Inside Of Alternatives Example---The Return Value From A Remote Shell Matching Customized Prompts Example---A Smart Remote Login Script What Else Gets Stored In expect_out More On Anchoring Pattern Actions, And Limits Matching Anything But Really Complex Patterns Really Simple Patterns Matching One Like And Only One Line Tcls string match Command Tcls regsub Command Ignoring Case All Those Ohter String Functions Are Handy, Too Actions That Affect Control Flow Example---rogue Character Graphics More Actions That Affect Control Flow Matching Multiple Times Recognizing Prompts (Yet Again) Speed Is On Your Size Controlling The Limits Of Pattern Matching Input The full_buffer Keyword Double Buffering Perpetual Buffering The Politics Of Patterns Expecting A Null Character Parity Length Limits Comments In expect Commands Restrictions On expect Arguments eval---Good, Bad, And Ugly Exercises Debugging Patterns And Controlling Output Pattern Debugging Enabling Enternal Diagnostics Logging Internal Diagnostics Disabling Normal Program Output The log_user Command Example---su2 Recording All Expect Output Sending Messages To The Log About File Names Log And Diagnostic State Exercises Handling A Process And A User The send_user Command The send_error Command The expect_user Command Dealing With Programs That Reprompt Dealing With Programs That Miss Input Sleeping Line Versus Character-Oriented And Other Terminal Modes Echoing Prompting For A Password On Behalf Of A Program Security And Insecurity Resetting The Terminal Upon Exit More On The stty Command The system Command Redirecting The Standard Input Or Output The expect_tty Command The send_tty Command Exercises The Expect Program Expect---Just Another Program Invoking Scripts Without Saying "expect" Rewriting The #! Line The .exp Extension The -- And Other Flags The -c Flag The -f Flag Writing The #! Line The -i Flags The -n And -N Flags The -d Flag The -D Flag The -b Flag The - Flag The interpreter Command Exercises Handling Multiple Processes The spawn_id Variable Example---chess Versus chess Example---Automating The write Command How exp_continue Affects spawn_id The Value Of spawn_id Affects Many Commands Symbolic Spawn Ids Job Control Procedures Introduce New Scopes How Expect Writes Variables In Different Scopes Predefined Spawn Ids Exercises Handling Multiple Processes SimulTaneously Implicit Versus Explicit Spawn Ids Waiting From Multiple Processes Simultaneously Example---Answerback Which Pattern Goes With Which Spawn Id Which Spawn Id Matched Spawn Id Lists Example---Connecting Together Two Users To An Application Example---Timing All Commands Matching Any Spawn Id Already Listed The expect_before And expect_after Commands Indirect Spawn Ids Exercises Send Implicit Versus Explicit Spawn Ids Sending To Multiple Processes Sending Without Echoing Sending To Programs In Cooked Mode Sending Slowly Sending Humanly Sending Nulls Sending Breaks Sending Strings That Look Like Flags Sending Character Graphics Comparing send To puts Excercises Spawn The Search Path Philosophy---Processes Are Smart Treating Files As Spawned Processes Opening Ttys Bugs And Workarounds Process Pipelines And Ptys Automating xterm Checking For Errors From spawn spawn -noecho Example---unbuffer Obtaining Console Output Setting Pty Modes From spawn Hung Ptys Restrictions n Spawning Multiple Processes Getting The Process Id From A Spawn Id Using File I/O Commands On Spawned Processes Exercises Signals Signals Signals In Spawned Processes Notes On Specific Signals When And Where Signals Are Evaluated Overriding The Orignal Return Value Using A Different Interpreter To Processes Signals Exit Handling Exercise Interact The interact Command Simple Patterns Exact Matching Matching Patterns From The Spawned Process Regular Expressions What Happens To Things That Do Not Match More Detail On Matching Echoing Avoiding Echoing Giving Feedback Without -echo Telling The User About New Features Sending Characters While Pattern Matching The continue And break Actions The return Action The Default Action Detecting End-Of-File Matching A Null Character Timing Out More On Terminal Modes(Or The -reset Flag) Example---Preventing Bad Commands Exercises Interacting With Multiple Processes Connecting To A Process Other Than The Currently Spawned Process Connecting To A Process Instead Of The User Example---rz And sz Over rlogin Redirecting Input And Output Default Input And Output Controlling Multiple Processes---kibiz Combining Multiple Inputs And Outputs Which Spawn Id Matched Indirect Spawn Ids Ann Extended Example---xkibiz Exercices Background Processing Putting Expect In The Background Running Expect Without A Controlling Terminal Disconnecting The Controlling Terminal The fork Command The disconnect Command Reconnecting Using kibiz From Other Expect Scripts Mailing From Expect A Manager For Disconnected Processes--dislocate Expect As A Daemon Example--Automating Gopher And Mosaic telnet Connections Exercises Debugging Scripts Tracing Logging Command Tracing Variable Tracing Example---Logging By Tracing UNIX System Call Tracing Tk And tkinspect Traditional Debugging Debugger Command Overview And Philosophy Stepping Over Procedure Calls Stepping Into Procedure Calls Where Am I The Current Scope Moving Up And Down The Stack Returning From A Procedure Continuing Execution Defining Breakpoints Help Changing Program Behavior Changing Debugger Behavior Exercise Expect + Tk = Expectk Tk---A Brief Technical Overview Expectk The send Command An Extended Example---tkpasswd Using Tk Widgets To Prompt For Passwords The expect Command And The Tk Event Loop The expect_background Command Multiple Spawn Ids In expect_background Background Actions Example---A Dumb Terminal Emulator Example---A Smart Terminal Emulator Using The Terminal Emulator For Testing And Automation Exercise Extended Examples Encrypting A Directory File Transfer Over telnet You Have Unread News---tknewsbiff Exercises Expect, C, And C++ Overview Linking Include Files Ptys And Processes Allocating Your Own Pty Closing The Connection To The Spawned Process Expect Commands Regular Expression Patterns Exact Matching Matching A Null What Characters Matched When The Number Of Patterns Is Not Known In Advance Expecting In The Background Handling Multiple Inputs And More On Timeouts Output And Debugging Miscellany Pty Trapping Exercises Expect As Just Another Tcl Extension Adding Expect To Another Tcl-based Program Defferences Between Expect And The Expect Extension In Another Program Adding Extensions To Expect Adding Extensions To Expectk Creating Scriptless Expect Programs Functions And Variables In The Expect Extension Exercise その他? ランダムな数字 例題---ランダムなパスワードを生成する Expectのライブラリ Expectのバージョン タイムスタンプ timeコマンド 演習 Appendix---Commands and Variables Commands And Flags Varialbles
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Are you fascinated by drones? Self-driving car technology has come a long way since rovers landed on Mars. Today, aerial drones are used for more than just military purposes; there are more for consumers. The number of drones in the United States has shown an explosive growth, and the US FCA restricts drone pilots and drones to ensure safety. Aerial drones with militarization capabilities also have the potential to attack military targets, with SpaceX landing rockets on unmanned ships in the middle of the ocean; battlefield-assisting robots can carry wounded soldiers out of danger. https //www.autelrobotic.com/ In the air, on the ground, on the surface or under the surface, new applications for unmanned vehicles are exploding, and there are even university drone courses set up, and the academy can prepare you to work in this exciting field. If you’ve grown up with a remote control and are interested in electronics, mechanics, drone technology and aviation systems, owning a drone can be a lot of fun, and it could be the start of your dream career. Drones and other unmanned aerial vehicles are no longer just for the military, but are now being used in agriculture, the environment, public safety, marketing and other industries. Autelrobotic enterprise drones are deployed for surveillance, tracking, mapping/surveying, photography and videography, inspection and maintenance applications. Drones are especially useful for dangerous or tedious tasks, such as monitoring fires, tracking leaks or inspecting runways. Drone shops in the US are really fun and even you can buy the assembly yourself, only for professionals. Get the address of the nearest drone store and Autelrobotic will be your new trusted partner, one of the best drone stores near you. Today, U.S. drones are frequented by drone pilots from the hobby and business side. A place where beginners and experienced pilots can mix it up and exchange valuable information.
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Application Forms Freshman Applicants Transfer Applicants Visiting Undergraduate Student Applicants Freshman Applicants The Freshman Application Deadline for the fall of 2011 was January 1. The Application Deadline for the Fall of 2011 has passed. Applications for the Fall of 2012 will be available on-line in August. You can still download and print the following supplemental forms to complete your application. You will not be able to complete them electronically. Apply Online Download Freshman Application forms Please note that you can only download and print the following forms - you will not be able to complete them electronically. Applications that are submitted on-line and applications received in the mail will be treated equally by the Admissions Committee. Harvard Supplement School Report (this includes School Report Part II not found on the Common Application) Teacher Report (2 required) Mid-Year School Report Pay your Application Fee If payment of the application fee would cause your family undue hardship, please contact your guidance counselor and request a fee waiver. The form or letter should be mailed to Harvard College Admissions 86 Brattle Street Cambridge, MA 02138 Transfer Students The Transfer Application Deadline for the fall of 2011 is March 1, 2011. Apply Online Harvard accepts the Common Application or the Universal College Application*. Please note that the Common Application and Universal College Application websites are operated independently, and their offices are better able to assist you with specific logistical issues you may encounter while submitting the application forms on their site. Download Transfer Application forms Please note that you can only download and print the following forms - you will not be able to complete them electronically. If you wish to apply on-line, you can do so through the Common Application or the Universal College Application websites. Applications that are submitted on-line and applications received in the mail will be treated equally by the Admissions Committee. Full Application (all forms and instructions) Welcome and Instructions Application Harvard Supplement College Report Professor Recommendation (2 required) Visiting Undergraduate Students Download VUS forms The Visiting Undergraduate Student Application Deadline for the fall term is April 15. The deadline for the spring term is October 15. Please note that you can only download and print the following forms - you will not be able to complete them electronically. Complete Application with all forms and instructions Application Cover and Instructions Application Dean s Letter Faculty Recommendation Request a VUS application by mail If you are unable to print these forms and wish to receive Visiting Undergraduate Student (VUS) application materials by mail, please submit an inquiry. It may take up to four weeks to receive the forms in the mail. To view the above documents you may need to download Acrobat Reader®.
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Scientists have conducted a new study, which concluded that when a person is depressed or has suicidal thoughts and treatment for depression does not seem to work, they should check for obstructive sleep apnea. Moreover, they agree that inquiries can be performed even though people do not appear to match the normal description of obstructive sleep apnea, which involves overweight men who snore and suffer from drowsiness during the day. "No one is talking about evaluating obstructive sleep apnea as a potential cause of resistance to treatment for depression, which occurs in about 50% of cases of major depressive disorder," says W. Vaughn McCall, lead author of the study. The researchers found this disease clinically relevant in 14% of the 125 patients diagnosed with major depressive disorder, insomnia, and suicidal thoughts. McCall even claims that the existing evidence is sufficient to introduce obstructive sleep apnea testing into the standard procedure for managing resistance to depression treatment. Most people diagnosed with apnea have higher rates of depression compared to other segments of the population. However, when things are reversed, specialists no longer have so much information. The initial intention of the scientists was to find out if treating insomnia can reduce suicidal thoughts. Patients diagnosed with obstructive sleep apnea have been excluded because sleeping pills tend to relax the muscles, and in the case of apnea, the neck muscles are already too relaxed, which is a problem. People with morbid obesity were also excluded. Of the 125 enrolled people tested through a sleep study, either in the center or at home, 17 were diagnosed with obstructive sleep apnea. However, neither daytime sleepiness nor insomnia accurately predicted the severity of apnea identified in the 17 patients, who were not obese, and six were women. Treating apnea can improve the symptoms of depression It is recognized that undetected medical or psychiatric conditions may cause resistance to treatment for depression. However, obstructive sleep apnea was not on this long list, including endocrine disorders such as hypothyroidism and other problems such as coronary heart disease and cancer. Patients with obstructive sleep apnea often also have depressive symptoms. Also, patients with apnea do not respond well to antidepressants. 45% of the 125 participants were resistant to depression, and four of the 17 diagnosed with apnea had serious problems. Also, most participants with apnea were elderly, with the risk increasing as people get older. Ten years earlier, McCall noticed that 8.2 percent of people with mild apnea had been studied in 73 patients with stress and insomnia, albeit with a low incidence of sleep apnea. Following a review by other specialists, 14% of 703 people with depression still had apnea. This is the first research in which suicidal behavior was indeed a consideration. When people lose their last hope that they will sleep well, they have a high risk of suicide. Obstructive sleep apnea appears to induce excess resting periods throughout the day, but insomnia patients have been enrolled in this experiment, and most of the individuals identified with insomnia are not prone to apnea. Depression aversion can also be a side-effect of drugs commonly used for other medical problems, including lupus and rheumatoid arthritis. Visit Kentucky mental health care in Louisville, KY, for the best Medication Therapy Management https //kentuckymentalhealth.com/medication-therapy-management/.